As long as the interviewer satisfies this need, he will talk. Franzosi, R.P. In many ways, gaining access is a thoroughly practical matter. And, in fact, researchers frequently acquire confidential information that they do not use. . engaged in political or practical action, the truth of what we say is not always our principal concern, even though we may prefer to be honest. Atkinson, P. (1992a) The ethnography of a medical setting: reading, writing and rhetoric, Qualitative Health Research, 2, 4: 45174. Tagging along was an enormous group of curiosity-seeking children and younger adolescents . (1977) Part Time Crime: An Ethnography of Fiddling and Pilferage, London: Macmillan. For instance, it has been suggested that social research involving deception and manipulation ultimately helps produce a society of cynics, liars and manipulators, and undermines the trust that is essential to a just social order (Warwick 1982: 58). (2006) The case for dangerous fieldwork, in D. Hobbs and R. Wright (eds) The Sage Handbook of Fieldwork, London: Sage. Stunned, I managed to say calmly that I would consider the suggestion and meet them the next day to pursue it further. They note not only the advantages that such data can have, but also its drawbacks by comparison with interviews. These stem from the fact that the regulation criteria have, to a large extent, been modelled on those developed for dealing with biomedical research. A similar instance is provided by Zerubavel (1979) in his formal analysis of time in hospitals; he necessarily draws on such sources as timetables, work rosters and clinical rotations, as embodied in organizational documents. Atkinson, P.A. They can certainly refuse to be interviewed, for example. The central injunction of grounded theorizing is that there should be constant interplay between data and ideas throughout the research process. The ethnographers negotiation of a role in the setting, and the implications of different roles for the nature of the data collected, will be examined in the next chapter. I think, instead, that it is first and foremost a matter of it all being so familiar that it becomes impossible to single out events that occur in the classroom as things that have occurred, even when they happen right in front of you. These may be produced spontaneously or elicited by the researcher, in the course of participant observation or in formally defined interview situations. (1981) On interviewing ones peers, British Journal of Sociology, 32, 1: 7591. Street, B.V. (1984) Literacy in Theory and Practice, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. It is all too easy simply to allow ones fieldnotes and other types of data to pile up day-by-day and week-by-week. And feminists, in particular, have stressed the importance of this from an ethical point of view also (see, for example, Oakley 1981; see also Tang 2002). It is hard to expect honesty and frankness on the part of participants and informants, while never being frank and honest about oneself. ), Researching Education Policy, London, Falmer. A sad exception is Cannon (1992), whose friends from her research were progressively depleted as they died from cancer. (eds) (1991) Beyond Methodology: Feminist Scholarship as Lived Research, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. Equally, however, we recognize that, increasingly, there are naturally occurring communities in virtual, digital space. One advantage of coding software over manual methods was the capacity to search the data comprehensively, avoiding partial or improperly selective sampling of events and examples. 210, 219, 228n12 Wax, Rosalie 90, 224 Webb, B. See, for example, Leigh (2006). Gubrium and D. Silverman (eds) Qualitative Research Practice, London: Sage. While ethics committees frequently acknowledge this in principle, in their deliberations it tends to be buried beneath standard concerns about, for example, procedures for ensuring informed consent. An interesting example of an application of this approach in an ethnographic study is Benjamins (1999) anthropological study of a Jewish community in Curaao, in which he gave participants substantial control over the conduct of the research and its publication. (1969) The logical structure of analytic induction, in G.J. Managing marginality Another dimension of variation associated with the typology of research roles developed by Junker (1960) and Gold (1958) concerns the perspective adopted. Writing ethnography 195 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41EEE One such category is the focus of Agars chapter on Events in Process. 2005). Ryan, P. (2006) Researching Irish gay male lives: reflections on disclosure and intellectual autobiography in the production of personal narratives, Qualitative Research, 6, 2: 15168. They link and juxtapose; they help to make the familiar seem strange; and vice versa. Since the mid-1980s, any such striving after value neutrality and objectivity has been questioned, sometimes being replaced by advocacy of openly ideological research (Lather 1986), militant anthropology (Scheper-Hughes 1995), or research that is explicitly carried out from the standpoint of a particular group, for example women, those suffering racism, indigenous peoples, or people with disabilities (see Denzin and Lincoln 2005). Equally, it may not have been such a good idea to have, as it appears, surrendered himself so thoroughly to the chance meeting with Tally and its consequences. Davies, M. and Kelly, E. (1976) The social worker, the client, and the social anthropologist, British Journal of Social Work, 6, 2: 21331. 1EEE 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 2 EEE3 4 5 6 7 8 9 20 1 2 3 4 5EEE 6 7 8 9 30 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 40 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 41EEE 5 Oral accounts and the role of interviewing It is a distinctive feature of social research that the objects studied are in fact subjects, in the sense that they have consciousness and agency. They use the typographical characters of the standard keyboard and printer to represent some basic features of speech such as pauses, overlaps, and interruptions as well as how words are pronounced, when the speaker speeds up or slows down, where emphasis is placed, and so on. Conversely, behaviour typical of the staffroom may not occur while visitors are there, or even while the head teacher is there. No longer. 1, Conducting Qualitative Research, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press Burke, K. (1964) Perspectives by Incongruity, Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press. (Whyte 1981: 309) Whytes comments here emphasize the importance of anticipating how the data might be used. (Golde 1986: 7980) In much the same way, male researchers may find it difficult to gain access to settings that are reserved for women, especially in cultures where there is a strong division between the sexes; and even in public settings there may be rules about what they can and cannot do. Sometimes, interviewees will refuse to allow the discussion to be audio-recorded; sometimes the ethnographer may judge that such recording will dissuade frankness or increase nervousness to an unacceptable level. In developing categories that make sense of the data, then, the focus must be on actions, the meanings that underpin or infuse them, and the wider situations that these actions both respond to and shape. Gubrium and D. Silverman (eds) Qualitative Research Practice, London: Sage. Cave, E. and Holm, S. (2003) Milgram and Tuskegee paradigm research projects in bioethics, Health Care Analysis, 11, 1: 2740. . Another possibility is to combine in-depth investigation of a small number of cases with more superficial checks on other cases. Neither positivism nor naturalism provides an adequate framework. It usually involved living with a group of people for extended periods, often over the course of a year or more, in order to document and interpret their distinctive way of life, and the beliefs and values integral to it. They begin with an interest in some particular area of social life, type of situation, group of people, or topic. (1960) Social theory in field research, American Journal of Sociology, 65: 57784. (2002) Confidentiality in qualitative research: reflections on secrets, power and agency, Qualitative Research, 2, 1: 3558. 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Moreover, ascribed characteristics, notably age, and latent identities, may reinforce this. And, as yet, he may have no stake in the system to protect. . (1975) on deviance in school classrooms. Hammersley, M. (2003a) Analytics are no substitute for methodology: a response to Speer and Hutchby, Sociology, 37, 2: 33951. Sanders (2006: 211) reports a number of examples of researchers in the sex industry being tested out. A sharp distinction is drawn between the context of discovery and the context of justification (Reichenbach 1938, 1951). . . Broadly speaking, those defined as outsiders or insiders are likely to have immediate access to different sorts of information. She ties this observation to particular settings and particular activities in them: I had requested the permission to observe what the psychoanalytic staff considered sacred. Hammersley, M. (2000) Taking Sides in Social Research: Essays on Partisanship and Bias, London: Routledge. At the same time, what are involved here are differences in emphasis, rather than mutually exclusive foci. . This may well have been one source of the trouble that Skipper and McCaghy (1972) ran into. These new textual forms also run the danger of transforming the canons of rigour for ethnographic research into essentially aesthetic matters. To learn more, view ourPrivacy Policy. Of course, these questions do not constitute a research design as such. All links can be labelled and annotated. Even the briefest of notes can be valuable aids in the construction of a more detailed account. 1, Conducting Qualitative Research, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Both Hudson and Beynon note that the employment of such strategies in establishing mutuality was more than simply establishing field relations. The ethnography itself can become a morality tale; a high drama; a picaresque tale of low-life characters; a comedy of manners; a rural idyll. Burgess (ed.) Research on Deviance, New York: Random House. The authors argue that ethnography is best understood as a reflexive process. Whether a group or individual format is used is also likely to affect what is said, as well as who speaks. Man and Culture: An Evaluation of the Work of Bronislaw Malinowski, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Indeed, everything we suggest in this chapter implies that the would-be author is always faced with choices. Articles, at times accompanied by pictures of smiling Indians, discuss these brave and sure-footed Mohawks. They are embedded within social frameworks of assumptions about what constitutes appropriate conduct, and also about what constitutes appropriate research. Moreover, we acknowledge that its value is restricted to facilitating the production of knowledge: it is not an effective means for advocacy, empowerment, or bringing about socio-political change. Preconceived ideas are pernicious in any scientific work, but foreshadowed problems are the main endowment of a scientific thinker, and these problems are first revealed to the observer by his theoretical studies. Some of these were identified earlier. Aggleton, P. (1987) Rebels without a Cause: Middle-Class Youth and the Transition from School to Work, London: Faber. . The geneticist William Bateson is reported to have advised his students: Treasure your exceptions! He argued that they are like the rough brickwork of a growing building which tells that there is more to come and shows where the next construction is to be (quoted in Lipset 1980: 54). 244 References Delamont, S. and Atkinson, P. (2004) Qualitative research and the postmodern turn, in M. Hardy and A. Bryman (eds) Handbook of Data Analysis, London: Sage. Ethnographers typically insist on the need to understand the perspectives of the people being studied in order to explain, or even to describe accurately, the activities in which those people engage. Europeans generally feel so strongly against this association and so fiercely punish its members that I refrain for the present from publishing an account of its rites, for some of them would offend European sentiments (Evans-Pritchard 1937: 511, quoted in Barnes 1979: 40). Furthermore, the data collection process is usually very intensive, and this has implications for what is and is not viable. (1989) Whose side are we on? There must always remain some part held back, some social and intellectual distance. There are now available numerous major works on the variety of qualitative research methods and perspectives (e.g. However, there has been criticism of this view: as, on the one hand, facilitating the distortion of evidence by participants or making genuine research impossible, and, on the other, potentially being a strategy that puts pressure on people to supply information that they would not otherwise divulge (Jenkins 1980). You hem and haw before making a leap into the situation. Burgess (ed.) In the same way, in open participant observation and interviewing, consideration of the effects of audience must be extended beyond the role of the ethnographer.10 The significance of audience is heightened by the fact that the participants in a setting rarely perceive themselves as a homogeneous grouping. One needs to think about more than research methods, as conventionally defined, or just the substantive focus of inquiry. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. However, this dimension is surrounded by what Styles (1979) refers to as outsider and insider myths: In essence, outsider myths assert that only outsiders can conduct valid research on a given group; only outsiders, it is held, possess the needed objectivity and emotional distance. ), its colour schemes, its furnishings and the like. Hustler, D., Cassidy, A. and Cuff, E.C. The actual words people use can be of considerable analytic importance. currently. Social Research Ethics: An Examination of the Merits of Covert Participant Observation, London: Macmillan. 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